“Principles of Biomedical Ethics” by Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Childress, based on the concept of principlism, is the most studied book in the field of bioethics, and played a decisive role in the consolidation and global expansion of the discipline. Its four principles, however, were taken from different theories: the autonomy principle came from Kantian theory (Kant); beneficence, from utilitarian theory (Mill); justice, from the theory of justice (Rawls); and non-maleficence, from the common morality theory (Clouser and Gert). Since the 1990s several criticisms have arisen regarding the epistemological homogeneity of the work.

As a result, changes, which are the subject of the present study, have been made to the text from the 4th edition onwards, especially concerning the common morality theory, incorporated in the book as the foundation of principlism. The aim of this study was to examine the inclusion of this theory into principlism, critically analyzing the contents of the last four editions of the book.Key words: Bioethics; Morals; Ethics; medical; Ethical theory. Although Tom Beauchamp and James Childress (B&C) have not (even in the latest edition of the book “Principles of Biomedical Ethics” – in which the idea is developed further than in previous editions) explicitly stated that common morality theory is one of the ethical doctrines that influenced principlism, it is clear that such a theory has come to be adopted by the authors as the main element of their theoretical argument.

This, influence, which is evident from the 4th edition of the book onwards, is the motivation behind this study.Common morality, while a historical product, comprises a basic set of moral standards, defined by the authors as a grouping of rules and moral principles which constitute a rational and socially stable set of rights and wrongs that are so widely accepted and spread that they form a true “social institution”. Common morality theory, in turn, is an attempt to doctrinally explain this historical and pre-theoretical reference. According to Karlesn and Solbakk, this theory can be applied to anyone, regardless of historical period or culture.This theory, which is complex in its application, covers levels of rationale that go far beyond the choice between moral principles and rules. According to Gordon, Rauprich and Vollmann, this can basically be summed up as the concomitant use of one criterion and three groups: one of ten moral rules (the Decalogue), one of ten moral ideals, and one of ten-relevant moral achievements. The single criterion, at a maximum level of abstraction, used to determine when exceptions to the rules would be justified, especially in the event of a clash between them. It also includes, according to B&C, an analysis of universal character traits and moral positively (virtues), as well as character addictions. Common morality theory and its relationship with principlismJust like with other moralities, standards of common morality are learned over a lifetime.

Over time, people also learn to separate these according to their membership of moral groups. Despite this ability to identify and separate moral standards, certain understandings of determined basic demands that affect moral groups remain shared by all, such as that it is forbidden to kill, steal and lie.The theory of common morality, or in other words the study of common morality as a theory, as proposed by Gert, Culver and Clouser, has its starting point in everyday moral experience. As this theory is based on common morality, something we all build and learn during everyday life, people generally know what it is instinctively, and even tend to apply it in daily life, even if they have never heard of it or studied it. To belong to the institution of “common morality”, moral norms should apply to anyone (as long as he or she is morally committed), regardless of historical time or place. This ability to permeate all cultures represents a true morally universal “meeting point”.Common morality is based on human nature, and should be the same for everyone. However, this does not mean that a single global standard of morality should exist, nor that such a standard should resolve all moral questions, or be rationally endorsed by all.

According to this interpretation, incorporated by B&C in the text discussed in this study, common morality does not represent a particular form of morality (with non-universal guidelines, determined by cultural, religious and/or institutional issues).Impartiality and universality are its essential characteristics. Common morality comprises a single moral system, shared by all rational adults and capable of dealing with all moral questions.

“Deal with,” however, does not mean to solve, since, in many cases, it distinguishes only between morally acceptable and unacceptable solutions, separating the ethical from the non-ethical and indicating only the most morally appropriate solution.For certain philosophers – such as Gordon, Rauprich and Vollmann; B&C (in principlism) and Gert and Clouser (in common morality theory) – there are several fundamentally suitable answers to the same moral conflict. They believe that to solve a moral conflict does not mean seeking the only correct solution, but merely providing a well-justified moral solution. In this case, common morality does not lead to absolute truths. Justifying an act only because it is adopted by a group that shares the same morality does not mean that it represents the only truth, but merely the views of a certain moral group.Obviously, the practice of bioethics also varies greatly from culture to culture, and from historical period to historical period. This is because bioethics is not static but is metaethically relative, and because there is historical pluralism within the context of each nation.

This historic pluralism assumes that different observers can justifiably arrive at distinct moral conclusions about the same ethical dilemma, as they use different moral foundations, such as beliefs, values and the commitments of specific moral groups.Universalism, also speaking metaethically, maintains that there exists a common morality shared by all rational people. This universalism is not to be confused with common morality itself, although it may be one of its characteristics. For these reasons, analysis of moral conflicts in different cultures needs to be contextualized. Imposing the moral vision of a culture or nation that is politically stronger than another is not contextualization, but mere uncritical importation of knowledge, otherwise known as moral imperialism.In addition to the question of universalism, it should be remembered, according to Karlsen and Solbakk, that there is not one absolute theory of common morality, but rather several. For the authors, this, in itself, already compromises the claim of common morality theory to be universal.

Furthermore, none of the proposed theories regarding common morality can be complete and universal in isolation, given that they are based on the existence of different levels of common morality and their interrelationships and coextensions. This in turn creates another problem as one cannot speak about the existence of common morality at all logical levels, but only in the higher, more fundamental levels.Another point is the nebulous question of whether common morality can vary according to the moral group to which it is inserted, as occurs with individual morals. Beauchamp argues that these changes can (and even should) occur, as long as they do so from time to time only and on an exceptional basis, and do not compromise the basic fundamental core of the theory. For the author, the excess of instability in moral guidelines impedes arguments for a theory of common morality. On the other hand, however, excessive stability prevents the application of the same theory over time or in very different cultures.

Ideally, he said, in a theory, there is instability in one or two guidelines, but the overall objectives should always remain stable.According to Gordon, Rauprich and Vollmann, meanwhile, common morality, precisely because it is endowed with just enough universality and instability to make it dynamic, should be seen as true guiding principle, fundamentally more elevated than the others, which are in turn guided by this theory. However, for Beauchamp himself, the framework of common morality seems to go further, functioning in the solution of moral conflicts not only as the super-principle organizer, but also as a collection of principles and rules (as occurs with principlism itself).As it is comprised of principles and rules (which are derived from principles) the theory of common morality inevitably results in a confrontation with asymmetric epistemological counter-positions.

In these conflicts, the most elevated and most generic standards (and there are no guidelines that are more elevated or more generic than super-principles) prevail at the expense of those that are shallower and more specific (such the rules). For Gordon, Rauprich and Vollmann, this form of practical application of common morality theory requires a review of more specific guidelines (rules), based on the more general (principles). Thus, rules are mandatorily reviewed in the light of principles, and principles in the light of super-principles. This gives greater consistency and teleological reliability to concrete applications. MethodA qualitative research survey was carried out by analyzing the content of pre-selected literature.

The selected document sample consisted of the four most recent editions, in English, of the book “Principles of Biomedical Ethics”, written by B&C.In pre-analysis of the content of the foundations of principlism, performed through a floating reading, it was observed that the common morality theory was absent in the first three editions, and only appeared in the 4 th edition. It was then present in the next three editions, although treated in a different manner in each of them. Thus, we sought the presence of the recording unit, “theory of common morality”, and the context unit, “as the theoretical basis of principlism” from the 4 th edition to the current (7 th) edition (inclusive) by selecting the appropriate chapters, paragraphs and sub-paragraphs.The English editions of the book were chosen not only to allow data to be extracted more faithfully, but also for reasons of parallelism between the texts, as only the 4 th edition has been translated into Portuguese. This choice allowed for free translation and broad interpretation by researchers.The exploration of the material phase consisted of the recording of the pre-selected passages. Using Word software program tables, each extract was transcribed and compared line by line, always being opposed, where appropriate, with its equivalent in the previous and subsequent editions (if any). Each line of the table corresponded to a transcribed paragraph, whereas the columns were divided into four: two of which oppose the contents of the different editions and the other two showing the respective page numbers.During transcription, sections were positioned so as to facilitate the identification of corresponding (or non-corresponding) points.

Common Arrangement Of Work Sections For Building Works Pdf Merger

One-off changes were colored red, while more extensive changes, such as transposed sections were colored blue, with smaller changes within these passages also colored red.With the changes highlighted, a new reading was performed in order to identify the content changes that responded to the objectives of the study. At this stage, the reference book “Qualitative Data Analysis” by Graham Gibbs was used. Finally, free translations of the selected parts were performed.

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Work

Publication date1998Media typePrint (Paperback)Pages180Common Arrangement of Work Sections, first published in 1987, is a industry working convention designed to promote standardisation of, and detailed coordination between, bills of quantities and specifications. It is part of an industry-wide coordinated projects information initiative (now managed by the ) and has been used for the arrangement of the, the National Engineering Specification and the Standard Method of Building Works (7th ed).The new edition aligns CAWS with the Unified Classification for the Construction Industry which was published in 1997.The Common Arrangement is the authoritative UK classification of work sections for building work, for use in arranging project specifications and bills of quantities. Over 300 work sections are defined in detail to give:. good coordination between drawings, specifications and bills of quantities. predictability of location of relevant information. fewer oversights and discrepancies between documents.

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Common Arrangement Of Work Sections Classification

flexibility to the contractor in dividing the project information into work packages.The classification of work sections is separate from, and complementary to, the classification of other concepts such as building types, elements, construction products and properties/characteristics. Uniclass, published in 1997, is the definitive overall classification tables, one of which is for work sections for buildings, comprising the Common Arrangement group, sub-group and work section headings.External links.This article about a book on or is a. You can help Wikipedia.